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The American Revolution as affected by the Muslim World – Part I
By Syed R. Mahmood
My fascination with the United States started when I was a student during my seventh and eight grades in Karachi, Pakistan. The American Information Center and library was only ten minutes of walking distance from my school. During my school recesses, I used to walk to the American Library and spend some time to look at the books and magazines. The basic theme of those publications, were to propagate the American ideology.
During those school days, I remember clearly in the month of December, 1959, when President Eisenhower visited Pakistan. Our school provided private buses for the students to go to the airport and welcome the American President. Thousands of Pakistanis were lined up on the streets to greet him.
These following paragraphs probably will describe my motives:
The American library and Information Center were very organized and effective in their objectives to propagate and win friends in their host countries. In the City of Karachi the library building was situated on a very busy Boulevard. It was a very large and attractive building. At the main gate there were no security guards and the Library was open for the general public. All day long the public would enter and leave without any hesitation. Any Pakistani citizen could have become a member of the library and checked out books. There was no charge for membership yet I also had a student membership. Other than books and propaganda brochures, there was a big library of documentary movies about the United States.
The settled and sophisticated campaign of propagating American values also created a strong impact on me at very early teen age. It created a strong desire in me to go to America for higher education. The main theme of the American Campaign was also to encounter the threats of the former Communist Soviet Union’s intentions to spread their Communist ideology.
Very vividly, I remember picking up very attractive printed brochures and booklets about the former Soviet Union’s invasion of Hungary in the month of October 1956. These booklets had eyewitness stories and graphic pictures about the atrocities of the Soviet Army against the people of Hungary. The United States was a very strong supporter of the Hungarians to have their freedom.
Now, I asked these questions of myself. Why does the United States need an army of soldiers to guard American Missions around the Globe? Why does America not have the courage to support the oppressed nations and communities? U.S. has all of the resources to promote and help in gaining freedom for oppressed people. What went wrong and how America should re-adjust her domestic and foreign policies?
Since America’s independence, the process of the American Revolution is evolving every day. In 1969, I joined this process of Americanism with great enthusiasm. As an American, I strongly believe that I should also work like my other fellow Americans to build a strong and fair society. I feel it is the responsibility and duty of every American to promote the American Ideals and the Dreams of the founding fathers which are based on Justice and equality.
In this essay, I am attempting to explore the avenues of my linkage to the American Society through the pages of history. There are different forces in America trying to pull this country in various directions. I would like to study and analyze our past history in relation to the Muslim world and learn how to promote harmony between these different forces.
The Founding Fathers
Here in America, a number of our early founding fathers had the insight to what this country needs to be successful. We would do well to refer back to them as a refresher to their guidance. i.e..,
George Washington, a hero of the American Revolution and the first President of the United States, “was an extraordinary man who made it possible for ordinary men to rule.”
This statement was written by a historian, Gordon Wood. Washington in his farewell address, advised the nation, “Observe good faith and justice towards all nations; cultivate peace and harmony with all.” He also said, “It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.”
John Adams, the second President, a Unitarian of superior intelligence, high morality and a man of great principal was one of the greatest founding fathers. He received his M.A. from Harvard in 1758.
In the era of modern history, a unique document was written and approved by the Congress of the United States of America on July 4, 1776. The author of this document, “The Declaration of Independence” was one of the founding members of this great nation, Thomas Jefferson. In 1801, he was elected as the third President of America. He left office in 1809.
Jefferson earned his B.A. from the College of William and Mary in 1762. He was a great American political thinker of his time and spoke six languages. He was also a professional writer. During his political career, he advocated for individual liberty. By profession, he was a lawyer. He did not have any religious affiliation like other founding fathers including George Washington, James Madison and James Monroe who were Episcopalians.
The contents of The Declaration of Independence also tell us that the author of these writings was a scholar of humanism and had a great deal of knowledge about World History. This document has two main parts; an introduction and conclusion. In the introduction, Jefferson explained that Americans would like to tell the world why they were taking this action and what they were doing. It took around two weeks for Jefferson to write this draft. Congress made a few changes and it was accepted.
In the second part of the Declaration, there is a list of unjust actions which were committed against America. The Patriots believed that the British intended to impose an absolute Tyranny over the American States.
The Declaration of Independence confirms that mankind’s rights are God-given. “The Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.” These words have inspired Americans and people around the Globe. The United States Constitution also emphasizes a notion of establishing Justice and Tranquility.
These noble American Ideals are the foundation of Americanism. The Patriots of that period were the victims of repeated injuries and usurpations by the King of Great Britain.
The objective of the Revolution was to fight for the freedom of the Colonies. These thirteen Colonies should function as Free and Independent States.
These founding fathers were brilliant and enlightened individuals. They were also courageous and determined leaders of the American Revolution. They were disappointed by their British brethren that they were deaf to the voices of justice and consanguinity, as if to be rated somewhat second class.
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal”. Some scholars and writers question Jefferson’s intentions on this subject. Did he mean that British and Americans are equals? Was he trying to say that Native Americans, blacks and other people living in the thirteen colonies should also be treated justly and fairly? In my opinion, the founding fathers were very sincere in laying the foundation of this new nation, the United States of America, upon justice and fairness. They were very sensitive on these issues. Did America follow these recommendations? It is another issue, we will discuss later in this essay.
The Declaration of Independence, a collection of profound and comprehensive statements of grievances and causes of the American Revolution, is the only one of its kind, a document in our recent history which is written by a revolutionary leader. It reflects the passion and pain of the suffering of the people of the thirteen colonies under the ruthless imperial rulers of Great Britain at that time.
The question is, by whom, and how was Jefferson influenced to produce a political document of this magnitude. He was an intellectual and an enlightened person. For the record, Jefferson did not have any religious affiliation. By birth, he was an Episcopalian and later in his life he showed his interest to be in Unitarian doctrine and English Deist sects, but he showed a great respect for religious scriptures of all faiths.
A Deist does not believe in the Trinity and Jesus’ divinity. They deny that Jesus was the son of God. Also they do not accept the idea of a revealed religion. They reject the belief of Jews, Christians and Muslims or that the Holy Scriptures are the word of God. A Deist believes in the existence of God solely upon the evidence of reason. Some American historians claim that other than Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, James Madison and another great American Leader and a founding father Benjamin Franklin were all Deists.
Jefferson wrote that the teachings of Jesus contain the “outlines of a system of the most sublime morality which has ever fallen from the lips of man.” He also wrote, “I am of a sect by myself, as far as I know.” Source: “Jefferson’s Religious Beliefs.” By Rebecca Brown, Monticello Research Department, August 1997.
Jefferson purchased a copy of the Muslim’s Holy book, the Quran, when he was getting ready to prepare for his bar examination in 1765. George Sale’s Quran was the first English version copy of the holy book, which was translated directly from the Arabic Language. He referred to the Quran as a book of religion, law and culture. In the early part of the 1770’s Jefferson developed an interest in learning the Arabic language and grammar. He made serious efforts to study and understand Islamic laws. His personal copy of the Quran is in the library of Congress. The first elected Muslim member of the U.S. Congress is from Minnesota. Keith Ellison took his oath on this copy of the Quran on January 4, 2007. The “AL-Quran,” very explicitly advocates, not to accept “Oppression.”
Thomas Jefferson has used the Muslim Holy book, the Quran, as a source of information to enlighten his legal knowledge and history of religion. (If readers would like to read a detailed informative article about Jefferson and his interest in the Quran, they should read “How Thomas Jefferson Read the Quran.”) Written by Kevin J. Hayes, University of Central Oklahoma.
One can conclude and say that this great historical draft of “The Declaration of Independence,” is the reflection of Jefferson’s comprehensive understanding of religious scriptures.
American Colonies and Muslim Heritage
After the independence, the first country to recognize this new nation was the Muslim State of Morocco. At the beginning of the American Revolution there were about 400,000 black Africans living in the thirteen American Colonies. Over 90 percent of these Africans were slaves. George Washington and Thomas Jefferson owned some slaves; however, they thought slavery is not a good practice. Many other leaders of the Revolution also realized that slavery was against the American ideals of Freedom, Liberty and Justice for all.
The common perception that Muslims have had no part in the American Revolution is simply not true. According to an estimate in 1776 there were hundreds of thousands of Muslim Slaves present in the United States. A good number of slaves also fought in the war. Jefferson fought for religious freedom in Virginia, he demanded recognition of the religious freedom for the Jews, Pagan and the “Mahamdan,”(the Muslims).
Jefferson’s friend and ally, Richard Henry Lee made a motion in Congress on June 7, 1776 that American colonies declare their independence. “True freedom,” Lee asserted, “embraces the Mahomitan (Muslims) and the Gentoo (Hindu) as well as the Christian religion.” On one occasion, President Washington declared that he would welcome “Mohometans” (Muslims) to Mount Vernon if they were “good workmen.” Probably he meant African Slaves or other Muslims. There are many more examples available. Source: The Founding Fathers and Islam, by James H. Hutson, Chief of Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.
This Muslim heritage began even earlier than the establishment of the Colonies. In 1492 Christopher Columbus brought two Arab Muslim captains with him on his first voyage to the new world. A Muslim Arab Negro came from Azamore on the Atlantic Coast in 1538 to lead an expedition from Mexico, he discovered Arizona and New Mexico. In the 1550’s an Egyptian called Prince Nassereddine settled near the Hudson River. He fell in love with Lotwana, a Native American princess and presumably married.
The early colonists acquired their slaves on occasion by other than the “traditional” slave ships. In 1586 an English explorer, Mariner and a pirate Sir Francis Drake raided Spanish and Portuguese ships and librated or captured hundreds of prisoners. He left more than 200 Moors, Turks, West Africans and Portuguese on Roanoke Island, North Carolina.
A very famous African American is Alex Haley, the author of “Roots”, which is the story of Alex Haley’s ancestor Kunta Kinte. He was a Muslim born in 1750 in Gambia, captured and enslaved and brought to Annapolis, Maryland in 1767. He was forced to give up his Islamic faith.
By this time, America was home to the enslaved population and who now had a feeling of patriotism. Peter Salem (Saleem), a former slave from Framingham, Massachusetts, a Revolutionary War decorated hero, fought in the month of June, 1775 in the Battle of Bunker Hill. Later he also fought in the battle of Saratoga. He had audience with George Washington for his bravery.
Researchers were able to find at least six additional Muslim names who fought in the Revolutionary War from 1774 – 1783. These included Yousuf Ben Ali aka Joseph (Benenhab) Benhaley who fought with General Sumter in South Carolina, Bempett Muhamed who was a corporal, Francis Saba, a sergeant and Joseph Saba were with the Continental Troops from 1775 to 1783.
There are hundreds of historical documents, available to support the claim of researchers that American Colonies had a very sizeable number of Muslims present, before and after the Revolutionary War. Like other settlers from the other parts of the World, Muslim settlers also came from Africa, the Ottoman Empire and other Arab nations in search of the new world..
American Colonies and Anti Islamic Sentiments
The American colonies inherited misinformation and a prejudicial attitude towards the Muslims and Islam through the Oriental writers from Europe. In 1697, an English Orientalist, Humphrey Prideaux, author of “The True Nature of Imposture fully displayed in the Life of Mohomet” used his book to disseminate misleading information regarding Islam and the Prophet Mohammad.
Protestants, Anglican Clergymen and parishioners of the American Colonies were provided copies of this book in very large numbers. This book was reprinted multiple times. Colonial religious scholars, Cotton Mather and John Edwards defamed Islam as a false faith. Harvard president Samuel Langdon called Prophet Mohammad a counterfeit prophet. In 1649 Alexander Ross published an English translation of the Quran, full of blasphemies and obscene languages.
There are many examples of Orientalists, they made deliberate efforts to mislead their readers and defame Islam and the Prophet Mohammad. May be it was their sense of insecurity or the reaction of the Crusade Wars between the Christians and Muslims in Jerusalem. Some writers may have thought reading the Quran and books about the life of Prophet Mohammad could be hazardous to their Christian faith.
John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State, son of a former President and one of the founders of the United States, expressed his views that Islam is a “fanatic and fraudulent” religion.
Encounter with Muslim States
After the Treaty of Paris of 1783 between Britain and the United States the British Royal Navy stopped protecting American Merchant ships in the Mediterranean. The semiautonomous Ottoman regencies of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis were indirectly supporting these so-called Barbary pirates to collect tribute from the American merchant ships. These pirates captured Westerners and sold them as slaves. The United States could not afford to have her own navy; therefore they had no choice, but to pay tribute to the Barbary States.
The United States Congress in the month of June, 1786, authorized John Adams, Jefferson and Franklin to negotiate a “Treaty of Peace and Friendship” with the Moroccan ruler Sidi Muhammad. This was to solidify our friendship as Morocco was not part of any conflict with the United States.
In 1797 a Treaty of Tripoli was signed between the United States and Tripoli Government under the title of “Treaty of Peace and Friendship.” The purpose of this Treaty was to settle the issue of payment of tribute to Tripoli.
Over the next fifteen years, the United States paid up to one million dollars per year, in ransom and tribute to these states. This amount was around twenty percent of the United States annual revenue. In 1801, after becoming the President, Thomas Jefferson refused to pay more than the eighty thousand dollars as agreed by the treaty with the ruler of Tripoli. In May 1801 Jefferson dispatched a group of Navy ships to the Mediterranean to challenge the pirates. In fifteen years, the United States was able to build a strong Navy. After a long conflict known as the Barbary Coast War or the Tripolitan War, in 1805 the war came to an end. A peace treaty was signed on June 10, 1805 by the Tripoli ruler and the United States. Prisoners were exchanged and the United States had to pay sixty thousand dollars. The United States was then given free trade and navigation rights in the Mediterranean.
United States and Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire was born before 1300 and lasted until World War I. It was the most extensive, greatest and long – lasting of empires in the history of the world. At the birth of United States, The Ottoman Empire’s position was that of a super power during that time. The Ottoman Empire held the area of the Northern Balkans and the territories of the Eastern Romans’ Empire.
During this time, another strong Muslim Dynasty was that of the Mogul Empire and it was the ruler of most of the Indian Subcontinent. The Moguls ruled India from 1526 to1857. At that time the estimated population of India was between 110 – 130 million in a territory of over 1.5 million square miles. The English were loosing their grip over the American Colonies at the same time that the East India Company of the British Empire was promoting trade with India. In 1857, the entire Indian sub-continent was colonized by the British Government.
In Iran, another strong Safavids (Persian) Muslim Empire was reaching the end of their rule. They ruled Iran from 1502 to 1736. Other Muslim rulers eventually took over the dynasty.
After independence, the United States needed to promote trade and commerce with the Ottoman Empire. Britain and France were making every effort to obstruct any negotiations between the leaders of the Ottoman Empire and the United States. American merchants in the Middle East had to pay exorbitant tariffs. America complained that they were mistreated by the kingdom of the Ottoman Empire. To complicate matters, America did not have an ambassador in Istanbul.
In 1819 John Adams started his efforts to achieve a United States and Ottoman Empire treaty. He understood the importance of developing friendly relationship with a superpower. The results of his efforts were to help America promote trade and commerce plus security for American travelers and Missionaries in the Orient.
The United States made several attempts to obtain a treaty with the Ottoman Empire which were beset by many difficulties. In 1821, Greek rebellions were trying to break away from the Ottoman Empire. Greece was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost four hundred years. It was a dilemma for the United States to support the Greeks and look out for their economic interests, or remain friendly with the Ottoman Empire. A large number of Americans thought it was a conflict between Islam and Christianity.
President James Monroe wanted to send military assistance to the Greeks. John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State, convinced Monroe that it would be against the Interest of the United States as we wish to seek a treaty with the Ottoman Empire. The American administration decided not to provide any aid to Greece and concentrated on achieving a treaty with the Ottoman Empire.
An American Muslim Envoy for Istanbul
John Adams selected a lawyer from New York, Luther Bradish who went to Istanbul disguised as a tourist. After making many unprofessional approaches to reach the proper contacts with the Sultan’s ministers, he could not achieve his goal. He did not have sufficient diplomatic skills and was called back to America.
George English was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He graduated from Harvard College with the highest academic award in 1807. He completed his Masters degree in theology in 1811. He was a poet, scholar and an authority on the Old and New Testament. During his studies at Harvard, he began to question Christianity and the New Testament. He authored a few books. One of the books was “The Grounds of Christianity Examined by Comparing the New Testament with the Old.” He later joined the Marine Corps during the War of 1812.
President James Madison commissioned English as a first lieutenant. He was send to the Mediterranean and was among the first citizens of the United States to have visited Egypt. Shortly after arriving in Egypt, English resigned from his commission. He developed a great deal of interest in studying Islam. He studied a 1688 version of an Italian translation of Islam’s holy book, the Quran. He embraced Islam and chose a Muslim name of “Muhammed Effendi”.
Mr. English became very fluent in the Arabic and Turkish languages. He was introduced to Ismail Pasha through the British Consul and created a very good impression on him.
Pasha hired him as a commander of an Egyptian artillery unit. In his new position, he led an action against Sudanese rebels.
George English (Muhammed Effendi) left Egypt in 1822 and came back to the United States. He wrote his memoir of the Sudan expedition. John Adams offered him another Government assignment. He was assigned as an American secret envoy to the Ottoman Empire. His job was to renew the efforts to achieve a treaty with the Ottomans. The United States did not have any diplomatic contact with Istanbul, so his first assignment was to cultivate a relationship with one of the high ranking ministers of the Sultan.
Muhammed arrived in Istanbul on November 5, 1823. He was instructed by John Adams to communicate very frequently with him by non diplomatic correspondence about his progress and also gather information regarding the political and commercial activities in the Kingdom. Muhammad adopted local clothing and started mingling with the high ranking Government Officials. Soon, some locals started to suspect him as a Greek spy.
He made contact with the sultan’s librarian. Through another connection, he was able to meet a very important contact, Husrev, a man who had an important position in the Ottoman military. He was very busy with the situation in Greece. During a conversation, Husrev told Muhammed about the bad intentions of the European countries desire to see the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire.
George English (Muhammed) assured Husrev that the United States does not have any territorial grabbing ideas. The United States would like to develop only mutual commercial relations with the Ottoman Empire.
John Adams assigned John Roger, a commander of the Mediterranean Squadron, to join George English in starting a conversation with the Ottomans, and achieve the same terms and conditions of the treaty which is enjoyed by the British and French. Probably John Adams was getting a little bit concerned about English’s strong attachment to the culture and faith of the land. After having a few exciting and warm meetings, the negotiations still could not move forward.
John Quincy Adams was elected to the Presidency of the United States for the term of 1825 to 1829. He started to support the idea of Greek independence. The Sultan decided to postpone the treaty negotiation. He said he will follow the advice of the British not to continue our negotiations with the United States.
On October 20, 1827, the Ottoman and Egyptian fleet were on their way to Southern Greece to quell their revolt. They were intercepted by Britain, France, and Russia and by Greek fleets near Navarino Bay (Pylos). America did not join the Europeans in this conflict. Though their sympathies were with Greece. America chose economic benefits over an armed conflict with the Ottomans.
George English (Muhammed ) became very upset and blamed Adams to lose our chance of having any treaty with the Ottoman Empire. The President was very frustrated for not having any treaty with Istanbul. Some people in Washington were unhappy with English. In their opinion, he was a traitor and he was loyal to the Sultan. Adams cut his ties with English and he was fired from his job. Muhammed sailed back to America in 1827. He died on September 20, 1828.
Treaty of Navigation and Commerce
In 1829 Andrew Jackson was elected as the seventh President of the United States. One of the first foreign policy agenda was to formalize a treaty and establish trading relations with the Ottomans. He was determined to see that the American flag in Istanbul should have the same respect as any European power.
Jackson appointed a team of three members to negotiate the terms of the treaty: David Offley, U.S. Navy Commodore James Biddle and a businessman from New York, Charles Rhind. Negotiations were kept secret from the British and other European powers. It started at Istanbul in February 1830 and it was signed on May 7, 1830. The “Treaty of Navigation and Commerce” was a major foreign policy achievement for President Jackson.
This was a turning point for our young nation, the United States, to gain access to such a culturally rich market. The huge door of Trade and Commerce was opened for American business and products. The Ottoman territory was as big as the European Market. A large number of Americans had a negative image of Arabs and Muslims. The Arabs also thought that Americans are a “savage and uncivilized people.”
This Treaty provided an opportunity for both civilizations to promote a cordial relationship with each other. Jackson and the Sultan expressed very friendly feelings for each other.
Andrew Jackson was determined to improve the American image and to promote a friendly relationship with the Ottomans. Within a few decades after independence, the United States became a technologically advanced country. The American Navy was catching up very rapidly with the naval supremacy of Great Britain.
America signed an agreement with the Ottomans to upgrade their Navy, weapons and armaments. The United States sold frigates, corvettes and brigs. Under the American supervision a naval shipyard was established in Istanbul to build small battle ships, frigates and including the world’s largest battleship, 934 ton “Mahmud”. American advisers and trainers were assigned to work with Ottoman cadets.
The Treaty of Navigation and Commerce proved to be a turning point for America to enjoy the benefits of security for their citizens in the Orient (Middle East). A huge consumer market was available to sell American made household goods.
In 1831, the Jackson administration appointed David Porter to be the first American Charge d’affaires in Istanbul. Sultan Mahmud was very happy with his work. He elevated Porter to the position of an Ambassador. He was America’s first Ambassador in the Middle East.
For Part two, please read in the next issue of: www.journalofamerica.net
Syed R. Mahmood is the Founding President of American Institute of International Studies and the past president of UMA. He was also the Republican Congressional Candidate 13th District, 2002, Fremont, California.
Bibliography
Amir Muhammad: The early History, Pre Columbus and Pre Slavery Years. www.Muslimsinamerica.org
Brooke Allen: Moral Minority, Our Skeptical Founding Fathers, Ivan R. Dee, Publisher. 2006.
Carter Smith: U.S. President, all you need to know. - Hylas Publishing 2004, 2005
James H. Hutson: The Founding Fathers and Islam, Library of Congress Information Bulletin, May 2002 – Vol 61, No. 5
Kevin J. Hayes: Thomas Jefferson read the Qur’an, University of Central Oklahoma
Early American Literature: Volume 39, Number 2 1982 -2004 The H.W. Wilson Company
Michael B. Oren: Power, Faith and Fantasy: America in the Middle East; 1776 –to present.
Michael Weber: The American Revolution, 2000 - Steck – Vaughn Company
Rebecca Brown: Jefferson’s Religious Beliefs, Monticello Research Department, August 1997
The Constitution of the United States of America
Thomas Jefferson: The Declaration of Independence, United States of America - July 4, 1776
Wikipedia: the free Encyclopedia. First Barbary War, Mach 3, 2010
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